Imagery-related eye movements in 3D space depend on individual differences in visual object imagery.

During recall of visual information people tend to move their eyes even though there is nothing to see. Previous studies indicated that such eye movements are related to the spatial location of previously seen items on 2D screens, but they also showed that eye movement behavior varies significantly across individuals. The reason for these differences remains unclear. In the present study we used immersive virtual reality to investigate how individual tendencies to process and represent visual information contribute to eye fixation patterns in visual imagery of previously inspected objects in three-dimensional (3D) space. We show that participants also look back to relevant locations when they are free to move in 3D space. Furthermore, we found that looking back to relevant locations depends on individual differences in visual object imagery abilities. We suggest that object visualizers rely less on spatial information because they tend to process and represent the visual information in terms of color and shape rather than in terms of spatial layout. This finding indicates that eye movements during imagery are subject to individual strategies, and the immersive setting in 3D space made individual differences more likely to unfold

Learning by teaching in immersive virtual reality – Absorption tendency increases learning outcomes

We investigated the learning outcome of teaching an agent via immersive virtual reality (IVR) in two experiments. In Experiment 1, we compared IVR to a less immersive desktop setting and a control condition (writing a summary). Learning outcomes of participants who had explained the topic to an agent via IVR were better. However, this was only the case for participants who scored high on absorption tendency. In Experiment 2, we investigated whether including social cues in the task instructions enhances learning in participants explaining a topic to an agent. Instruction manipulation affected learning as a function of absorption tendency: Low-absorption participants benefitted most from being instructed to imagine they were helping a student peer pass an upcoming test, while high-absorption participants benefitted more when they were to explain the text to a virtual agent. The findings highlight the crucial role of personality traits in learning by teaching in IVR

Guidance on noncorticosteroid systemic immunomodulatory therapy in noninfectious uveitis: fundamentals of care for uveitis (focus) initiative

Topic: An international, expert-led consensus initiative to develop systematic, evidence-based recommendations for the treatment of noninfectious uveitis in the era of biologics. Clinical Relevance: The availability of biologic agents for the treatment of human eye disease has altered practice patterns for the management of noninfectious uveitis. Current guidelines are insufficient to assure optimal use of noncorticosteroid systemic immunomodulatory agents. Methods: An international expert steering committee comprising 9 uveitis specialists (including both ophthalmologists and rheumatologists) identified clinical questions and, together with 6 bibliographic fellows trained in uveitis, conducted a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses protocol systematic reviewof the literature (English language studies from January 1996 through June 2016; Medline [OVID], the Central Cochrane library, EMBASE,CINAHL,SCOPUS,BIOSIS, andWeb of Science). Publications included randomized controlled trials, prospective and retrospective studies with sufficient follow-up, case series with 15 cases or more, peer-reviewed articles, and hand-searched conference abstracts from key conferences. The proposed statements were circulated among 130 international uveitis experts for review.Atotal of 44 globally representativegroupmembersmet in late 2016 to refine these guidelines using a modified Delphi technique and assigned Oxford levels of evidence. Results: In total, 10 questions were addressed resulting in 21 evidence-based guidance statements covering the following topics: when to start noncorticosteroid immunomodulatory therapy, including both biologic and nonbiologic agents; what data to collect before treatment; when to modify or withdraw treatment; how to select agents based on individual efficacy and safety profiles; and evidence in specific uveitic conditions. Shared decision-making, communication among providers and safety monitoring also were addressed as part of the recommendations. Pharmacoeconomic considerations were not addressed. Conclusions: Consensus guidelines were developed based on published literature, expert opinion, and practical experience to bridge the gap between clinical needs and medical evidence to support the treatment of patients with noninfectious uveitis with noncorticosteroid immunomodulatory agents

Eye movements to absent objects during mental imagery and visual memory in immersive virtual reality

The role of eye movements in mental imagery and visual memory is typically investigated by presenting stimuli or scenes on a two-dimensional (2D) computer screen. When questioned about objects that had previously been presented on-screen, people gaze back to the location of the stimuli, even though those regions are blank during retrieval. It remains unclear whether this behavior is limited to a highly controlled experimental setting using 2D screens or whether it also occurs in a more naturalistic setting. The present study aims to overcome this shortcoming. Three-dimensional (3D) objects were presented along a circular path in an immersive virtual room. During retrieval, participants were given two tasks: to visualize the objects, which they had encoded before, and to evaluate a statement about visual details of the object. We observed longer fixation duration in the area, on which the object was previously displayed, when compared to other possible target locations. However, in 89% of the time, participants fixated none of the predefined areas. On the one hand, this shows that looking at nothing may be overestimated in 2D screen-based paradigm, on the other hand, the looking at nothing effect was still present in the 3D immersive virtual reality setting, and thus it extends external validity of previous findings. Eye movements during retrieval reinstate spatial information of previously inspected stimuli

Group Decision-Making in Multi-User Immersive Virtual Reality

Head-mounted displays enable social interactions in immersive virtual environments. However, it is yet unclear whether the technology is also suitable for collaborative work between remote group members. Previous research comparing group performance in nonimmersive computer-mediated communication and face-to-face (FtF) interaction yielded inconsistent results. For this reason, we set out to compare multi-user immersive virtual reality (IVR), video conferencing (VC), and FtF interaction in a group decision task. Furthermore, we examined whether the conditions differed with respect to cognitive load and social presence. Using the hidden profile paradigm, we tested 174 participants in a fictional personnel selection case. Discussion quality in IVR did not differ from VC and FtF interaction. All conditions showed the typical bias for discussing information that was provided for all participants (i.e., shared information) compared with information that was only disclosed to individual participants (i.e., unshared information). Furthermore, we found that IVR groups showed the same probability of solving the task correctly. Social presence in IVR was reduced compared with FtF interaction; however, we found no differences in cognitive load. In sum, our results imply that IVR can effectuate efficient group behavior in a modern working environment that is characterized by a growing demand for remote collaboration

Keeping track of reality: embedding visual memory in natural behaviour.

Since immersive virtual reality (IVR) emerged as a research method in the 1980s, the focus has been on the similarities between IVR and actual reality. In this vein, it has been suggested that IVR methodology might fill the gap between laboratory studies and real life. IVR allows for high internal validity (i.e., a high degree of experimental control and experimental replicability), as well as high external validity by letting participants engage with the environment in an almost natural manner. Despite internal validity being crucial to experimental designs, external validity also matters in terms of the generalizability of results. In this paper, we first highlight and summarise the similarities and differences between IVR, desktop situations (both non-immersive VR and computer experiments), and reality. In the second step, we propose that IVR is a promising tool for visual memory research in terms of investigating the representation of visual information embedded in natural behaviour. We encourage researchers to carry out experiments on both two-dimensional computer screens and in immersive virtual environments to investigate visual memory and validate and replicate the findings. IVR is valuable because of its potential to improve theoretical understanding and increase the psychological relevance of the findings

Using space to represent categories: Insights from gaze position

We investigated the boundaries among imagery, memory, and perception by measuring gaze during retrieved versus imagined visual information. Eye fixations during recall were bound to the location at which a specific stimulus was encoded. However, eye position information generalized to novel objects of the same category that had not been seen before. For example, encoding an image of a dog in a specific location enhanced the likelihood of looking at the same location during subsequent mental imagery of other mammals. The results suggest that eye movements can also be launched by abstract representa- tions of categories and not exclusively by a single episode or a specific visual exemplar

Group decision making in multi-user virtual reality and video conferencing

Head-mounted displays enable social interactions in immersive virtual environments. However, it is yet unclear whether the technology is suitable for collaborative work between distant group members. Other communication technologies such as online chat tools or video conferencing systems have repeatedly led to poorer group performance compared to face-to-face interaction. It has been argued that lack of social presence and increased cognitive load might be responsible for these results. The use of a multi-user Virtual Reality (VR) system can help to overcome some of these limitations. Multi-user VR enables users to convey spatially directed, non-verbal behavior (i.e., selective gaze and gestures), which was shown to be beneficial for group performance. Moreover, the entire visual field is taken by the VR display, thus allowing to reduce extraneous cognitive load by means of controlling task-irrelevant stimuli. We set out to compare multi-user VR, video conferencing, and face-to-face interaction in terms of collaborative performance in a group decision task. Furthermore, we examine whether performance is influenced by the feeling of presence, social presence, and cognitive load. Using the hidden profile paradigm, we have started testing small groups of three participants, who are working on a personnel selection case. In the hidden profile paradigm, each participant receives an individual information set containing shared and unshared information about four fictional candidates. The correct (i.e., most favorable) candidate can only be identified if sufficient unshared information is exchanged during the subsequent group discussion. The groups are randomly assigned to discuss the alternatives in a multi-user VR environment via virtual representatives (i.e., avatars), in a video conference, or in a face-to-face setting. Data collection (approx. 150 students) is currently ongoing. Consistent with previous research, we expect poorer performance of the video conferencing system compared to the face-to-face condition. In contrast, we expect better performance in the VR condition, presumably comparable to the face-to-face condition. We will present preliminary analyses and discuss our findings with respect to the potential of multi-user VR as a tool for online collaboration